The Universe Was Built Precisely To Specifications
Statistics favor Creation
The earth had to be just the right size, 8,000 miles in diameter, for life to exist. At 9,500 miles, scientists have determined the weight of the air would double converting so much oxygen to water that it would cover the entire earth.1
The earth is 93 million miles from the sun, just the right distance. If it were just 5% farther from the sun, it would be too cold and mostly covered with ice. A little closer and the earth would be unbearably hot and the polar ice caps would melt, flooding the coasts.2
The earth must rotate at just the right speed. If it was a little faster, much of the earth would freeze and if it were slower it would overheat. “The earth rotates at just the right speed, making complete revolution every twenty-four hours in its trip around the sun. The result is, the earth’s crust is evenly heated like a chicken on a turning spit.”3
The earth needs the right atmosphere including 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen, required to sustain life.4
The earth needs the correct tilt, 23.5º, allowing four seasons and twice the arable land.5
Gravity is needed to hold mass to the surface of the earth. Gravitation is also needed to keep the earth and the other planets in their orbits around the sun and for keeping the moon in its orbit around the earth. “If the gravitational force were altered by 0.0000000000000000000000000000000000001 percent, our sun would not exist, and, therefore, neither would we.”6 “If the interaction [gravitational interaction between the earth and the moon] were greater than it currently is, tidal effects on the oceans, atmosphere, and rotational period would be too severe. If it were less, orbital changes would cause climatic instabilities. In either even, life on earth would be impossible.”7If the gravitational force constant if larger: stars would be too hot and would burn up too quickly and too unevenly if smaller: stars would remain so cool that nuclear fusion would never ignite, hence no heavy element production.8
The earth’s orbit must have an eccentricity of near 2%. Eccentricity is the degree to which an ellipse is squashed and is assigned a number between zero and one. An eccentricity near zero is circular whereas one near one is nearly flattened. At 2% the earth is nearly circular. An orbit eccentricity of one would lead to the boiling of oceans when reaching our nearest point to the sun. In contrast, the farthest point from the sun would freeze over.9
Earth’s atmosphere is 21% oxygen, an anthropic constant (permitting man’s existence). “If oxygen were 25 percent, fires would erupt spontaneously; if it were 15 percent, human beings would suffocate.”10
Oxygen must be in a specific form (elemental). For life to exist oxygen must present itself as a molecule of two atoms (O₂). Triatomic Oxygen, O₃, called 'Ozone' is poisonous. The ozone layer, high above in the atmosphere, absorbs UV rays and protects life on Earth. The right level of transparency (light) is crucial to human life. “If the atmosphere were less transparent, not enough solar radiation would reach the earth’s surface. If it were more transparent, we would be bombarded with far too much solar radiation down here.”11
Electromagnetism works at the subatomic level as the force that holds electrons and protons together inside atoms. “The strong nuclear force works to bind protons and neutrons together to form the nucleus of an atom. The weak nuclear force is responsible for the radioactive decay of subatomic particles. It initiates hydrogen fusion in stars and results in the release of energy. By the process of fusion, the sun radiates light and heat to sustain life on our planet.”12 If the electromagnetic force constant was larger there would insufficient chemical bonding and elements more massive than boron would be too unstable for fission.13 If smaller, there would be insufficient chemical bonding and result in inadequate quantities of either carbon or oxygen.14
There are many other parameters for the universe that must have values falling within narrowly defined ranges for physical life of any kind to exist that include:15
-The ratio of electromagnetic force constant to gravitational force constant.
-The ratio of electron to proton mass.
-The ratio of numbers of protons to electrons.
-The expansion rate of the universe
-The entropy level of the universe.
-The baryon or nucleon density of the universe
-The velocity of light
-Age of the universe (shown to be about 15 billion years old)
-Initial uniformity of radiation
-Fine structure constant (a number used to describe the fine structure splitting of spectral lines)
-Average distance between galaxies
-Decay rate of the proton
-12Carbon (12C) to 16Oxygen (16O) energy level ratio
-Decay rate of 8Beryllium (8Be)
-Mass excess of the neutron over the proton
-Initial excess of nucleons over anti-nucleons
-Polarity of the water molecule
-Supernovae eruptions
-White dwarf binaries
-Ratio of exotic to ordinary matter
-Galaxy clusters
-Number of effective dimensions in the early universe
-Number of effective dimensions in the present universe
-Mass of the neutrino
-Big bang ripples
-Total mass density
-Space energy density
-Size of the relativistic dilation factor
-Uncertainty magnitude in the Heisenberg uncertainty principle
The following parameters of a planet, its moon, its star, and its galaxy must have values falling within narrowly defined ranges for life of any kind to exist.16 We live in the Milky Way galaxy, one of billions of galaxies that make up the universe. Note that supernovae eruptions and white dwarf binaries are listed here and in above list for the universe.
§ Galaxy cluster type
§ Galaxy size
§ Galaxy type
§ Galaxy location
§ Supernovae eruptions
§ White dwarf binaries
§ Proximity of solar nebula to a supernova eruption
§ Timing of solar nebula formation relative to supernova eruption
§ Parent star distance from center of galaxy
§ Parent star distance from closest spiral arm
§ Z-axis heights of parent star’s orbit
§ Number of stars in the planetary system
§ Parent star birth date
§ Parent star age
§ Parent star mass
§ Parent star metallicity
§ Parent star color
§ H3+ production
§ Parent star luminosity relative to speciation
§ Surface gravity (escape velocity)
§ Distance from parent star
§ Inclination of orbit
§ Orbital eccentricity
§ Rate of change of axial tilt
§ Rotation period
§ Rate of change in rotation period
§ Planet age
§ Magnetic field
§ Thickness of crust
§ Albedo (ratio of reflected light to total amount falling on surface)
§ Asteroidal and cometary collision rate
§ Mass of body colliding with primordial Earth
§ Timing of body colliding with primordial Earth
§ Collision location of body colliding with primordial Earth
§ Oxygen to nitrogen ratio in atmosphere
§ Carbon dioxide level in atmosphere
§ Water vapor level in atmosphere
§ Frequency and extent of ice ages
§ Soil mineralization
§ Gravitational interaction with a moon
§ Jupiter distance
§ Jupiter mass
§ Drift in major planet distances
§ Major planet eccentricities
§ Major planet orbital instabilities
§ Atmospheric pressure
§ Atmospheric transparency
§ Chlorine quantity in atmosphere
§ Iron quantity in oceans and soils
§ Tropospheric ozone quantity
§ Stratospheric ozone quantity
§ Mesospheric ozone quantity
§ Quantity and extent of forest and grass fires
§ Quantity of soil sulfur
§ Biomass to comet in fall ratio
In addition to the perfect parameters for life on earth, the universe is fine-tuned for our existence. Does that sound like circumstances that can result from an explosion of one massive rock?
The evidence is overwhelming for Creation. The odds of all this occurring by chance is negligible probability, a phrase coined from the work of mathematician Emil Borel.17
Stephen Hawking has estimated that if the rate of the universe's expansion one second after the Big Bang had been smaller by even one part in a hundred thousand million million, the universe would have re-collapsed into a hot fireball due to gravitational attraction.18
References:
Guillermo Gonzalez and Jay Richards, The Privileged Planet, 2004.
Ibid.
Fred John Meldau, Why We Believe in Creation, Not in Evolution, 1968, 28.
Guillermo Gonzalez and Jay Richards, The Privileged Planet, 2004.
Ibid.
Geisler and Nix, 102.
Ibid., 100.
Bernard J. Carr and Martin J. Rees, “The Anthropic Principle and the Structure of the Physical World,” Nature 278 (1979): 605–612
Bert Thompson, Ph.D., The Case for the Existence of God, Scripture and Science Series, http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/cfeog.pdf (Montgomery, AL, Apologetics Press, 2003), 58.
Norman Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don’t Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist, 2004, 98.
Geisler and Nix, 100.
Noel Horner, Planet Earth: Lucky Accident or Master Handiwork (The Good News, March—April 2012), 6
John M. Templeton, “God Reveals Himself in the Astronomical and in the Infinitesimal,” Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation (December 1984): 194–200
Ibid.
Ross, Hugh (2011-12-24). The Creator and the Cosmos: How the Latest Scientific Discoveries Reveal God (Kindle Location 2512). Reasons To Believe. Kindle Edition.
ú Ross, 120–128
ú Barrow and Tipler, 123–457
ú Bernard J. Carr and Martin J. Rees, “The Anthropic Principle and the Structure of the Physical World,” Nature 278 (1979): 605–612
ú John M. Templeton, “God Reveals Himself in the Astronomical and in the Infinitesimal,” Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation (December 1984): 194–200
ú Jim W. Neidhardt, “The Anthropic Principle: A Religious Response,” Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation (December 1984): 201–207
ú Brandon Carter, “Large Number Coincidences and the Anthropic Principle in Cosmology,” Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union Symposium No. 63: Confrontation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data, ed. M. S. Longair (Boston, MA: Reidel Publishing, 1974), 291–298
ú John D. Barrow, “The Lore of Large Numbers: Some Historical Background to the Anthropic Principle,” Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 22 (1981): 404–420
ú Alan Lightman, “To the Dizzy Edge,” Science 82 (October 1982): 24–25
ú Thomas O’Toole, “Will the Universe Die by Fire or Ice?” Science 81 (April 1981): 71–72
ú Hoyle, Galaxies, Nuclei, and Quasars, 147–150
ú Bernard J. Carr, “On the Origin, Evolution, and Purpose of the Physical Universe,” Physical Cosmology and Philosophy, ed. John Leslie (New York: Macmillan, 1990), 134–153
ú Swinburne, 154–173
ú R. E. Davies and R. H. Koch, “All the Observed Universe Has Contributed to Life,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B, 334 (1991): 391–403
ú George F. R. Ellis, 27–32
ú Hubert Reeves, “Growth of Complexity in an Expanding Universe,” in The Anthropic Principle, ed. F. Bertola and U. Curi (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 67–84
ú Oberhummer, Csótó, and Schlattl, 88-90
ú Lawrence M. Krauss, 461–466
ú Christopher C. Page et al., 47–52
ú S. Perlmutter et al., “Measurements of Ω and ∧ from 42 High-Redshift Supernovae,” Astrophysical Journal 517 (1999): 565–586
ú P. deBarnardis et al., “A Flat Universe from High-Resolution Maps of the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation, Nature 494 (2000): 955–959
ú A. Melchiorri et al., “A Measurement of Ω from the North American Test Flight of Boomerang,” Astrophysical Journal Letters 536 (2000): L63–L66
ú Lawrence M. Krauss and Glenn D. Starkman, “Life, the Universe, and Nothing: Life and Death in an Ever-Expanding Universe,” Astrophysical Journal 531 (2000): 22–30
ú Volker Bromm, Paolo S. Coppi, and Richard B. Larson, “Forming the First Stars in the Universe: The Fragmentation of Primordial Gas, “Astrophysical Journal Letters 527 (1999): L5–L8
ú Jaume Garriga, Takahiro Tanaka, and Alexander Vilenkin, “Density Parameter and the Anthropic Principle,” Physical Review D, 60 (1999): 5–21
ú Jaume Garriga and Alexander Vilenkin, “On Likely Values of the Cosmological Constant,” Physical Review D, 61 (2000): 1462–1471
ú Max Tegmark and Martin Rees, “Why is the Cosmic Microwave Background Fluctuation Level 10-5?” Astrophysical Journal 499 (1998): 526–532
ú Jaume Garriga, Mario Livio, and Alexander Vilenkin, “Cosmological Constant and the Time of Its Dominance,” Physical Review D, 61 (2000): in press
ú Peter G. van Dokkum et al., “A High Merger Fraction in the Rich Cluster MS 1054-03 at z = 0.83: Direct Evidence for Hierarchical Formation of Massive Galaxies,” Astrophysical Journal Letters 520 (1999): L95–L98
ú Theodore P. Snow and Adolf N. Witt, “The Interstellar Carbon Budget and the Role of Carbon in Dust and Large Molecules,” Science 270 (1995): 1455–1457
ú Elliott H. Lieb, Michael Loss, and Jan Philip Solovej, “Stability of Matter in Magnetic Fields,” Physical Review Letters 75 (1995): 985–989
ú B. Edvardsson et al., “The Chemical Evolution of the Galactic Disk. I. Analysis and Results,” Astronomy & Astrophysics 275 (1993): 101–152
ú Hugh Ross, “Sparks in the Deep Freeze,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 1 (1997), 5–6
ú T. R. Gabella and T. Oka, “Detection of H3+ in Interstellar Space,” Nature 384 (1996): 334–335
ú David Branch, “Density and Destiny,” Nature 391 (1998): 23
ú Andrew Watson, “Case for Neutrino Mass Gathers Weight,” Science 277 (1997): 30–31; Dennis Normile, “New Experiments Step Up Hunt for Neutrino Mass,” Science 276 (1997): 1795
ú Joseph Silk, “Holistic Cosmology,” Science 277 (1997): 644; Frank Wilczek, “The Standard Model Transcended,” Nature 394 (1998): 13–15
ú Limin Wang et al., “Cosmic Concordance and Quintessence,” Astrophysical Journal 530 (2000): 17–35; Robert Irion, “A Crushing End for our Galaxy,” Science 287 (2000): 62–64
ú Roland Buser, “The Formation and Early Evolution of the Milky Way Galaxy,” Science 287 (2000): 69–74
ú Joss Bland-Hawthorn and Ken Freeman, “The Baryon Halo of the Milky Way: A Fossil Record of Its Formation,” Science 287 (2000): 79–83
ú Robert Irion, “Supernova Pumps Iron in Inside-Out Blast,” Science 287 (2000): 203–205
ú Gary Gibbons, “Brane-Worlds,” Science 287 (2000): 49–50
ú Anatoly Klypin, Andrey V. Kravtsov, and Octavio Valenzuela, “Where Are the Missing Galactic Satellites?” Astrophysical Journal 522 (1999): 82–92
ú Inma Dominguez et al., “Intermediate-Mass Stars: Updated Models,” Astrophysical Journal 524 (1999): 226–241
ú J. Iglesias-Páramo and J. M. Vilchez, “On the Influence of the Environment in the Star Formation Rates of a Sample of Galaxies in Nearby Compact Groups,” Astrophysical Journal 518 (1999): 94–102
ú Dennis Normile, “Weighing in on Neutrino Mass,” Science 280 (1998): 1689–1690
ú Eric Gawiser and Joseph Silk, “Extracting Primordial Density Fluctuations,” Science 280 (1998): 1405–1411
ú Joel Primack, “A Little Hot Dark Matter Matters,” Science 280 (1998): 1398–1400
ú Stacy S. McGaugh and W. J. G. de Blok, “Testing the Dark Matter Hypothesis with Low Surface Brightness Galaxies and Other Evidence,” Astrophysical Journal 499 (1998): 41–65 Nikos Prantzos and Joseph Silk, “Star Formation and Chemical Evolution in the Milky Way: Cosmological Implications,” Astrophysical Journal 507 (1998): 229–240
P. Weiss, “Time Proves Not Reversible at Deepest Level,” Science News 154 (1998): 277
ú E. Dwek et al., “The COBE Diffuse Infrared Background Experiment Search for the Cosmic Infrared Background. IV. Cosmological Implications,” Astrophysical Journal 508 (1998): 106–122
ú G. J. Wasserburg and Y.-Z. Qian, “A Model of Metallicity Evolution in the Early Universe,” Astrophysical
16. Ibid., (Kindle Locations 3190-3191)
ú Davies and Koch, 391–403
ú Hart, 351–357
ú Ward, 444–448
ú Murray, 586–587
ú Laskar and Robutel, 608–612
ú Laskar, Joutel, and Robutel, 615–617
ú Newsom and Taylor, 29–34
ú Kaula, 1191–1196
ú Robert T. Rood and James S. Trefil, Are We Alone? The Possibility of Extraterrestrial Civilizations (New York: Scribner’s Sons, 1983)
ú John D. Barrow and Frank J. Tipler, The Anthropic Cosmological Principle (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 510–575 Don L. Anderson, “The Earth as a Planet: Paradigms and Paradoxes,” Science 22, no. 3 (1984), 347–355
ú I. H. Campbell and S. R. Taylor, “No Water, No Granite—No Oceans, No Continents,” Geophysical Research Letters, 10 (1983): 1061–1064; Brandon Carter, “The Anthropic Principle and Its Implications for Biological Evolution,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, series A, 310 (1983), 352–363
ú Allen H. Hammond, “The Uniqueness of the Earth’s Climate,” Science 187 (1975), 245
ú Owen B. Toon and Steve Olson, “The Warm Earth,” Science 85 (October 1985): 50–57
ú George Gale, “The Anthropic Principle,” Scientific American 245, no. 6 (1981), 154–171
ú Hugh Ross, Genesis One: A Scientific Perspective (Pasadena, CA: Reasons To Believe, 1983), 6–7; Ron Cottrell, The Remarkable Spaceship Earth (Denver, CO: Accent Books, 1982)
ú Ter D. Haar, “On the Origin of the Solar System,” Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 5 (1967): 267–278; George Greenstein, The Symbiotic Universe (New York: William Morrow, 1988), 68–97
ú John M. Templeton, “God Reveals Himself in the Astronomical and in the Infinitesimal,” Journal of the American Scientific Affiliation (December 1984): 196–198
ú Michael H. Hart, “The Evolution of the Atmosphere of the Earth,” Icarus 33 (1978): 23–39
ú Tobias Owen, Robert D. Cess, and V. Ramanathan, “Enhanced CO2 Greenhouse to Compensate for Reduced Solar Luminosity on Early Earth,” Nature 277 (1979), 640–641
ú John Gribbin, “The Origin of Life: Earth’s Lucky Break,” Science Digest (May 1983): 36–102
ú P .J. E. Peebles and Joseph Silk, “A Cosmic Book of Phenomena,” Nature 346 (1990): 233–239
ú Michael H. Hart, “Atmospheric Evolution, the Drake Equation, and DNA: Sparse Life in an Infinite Universe,” Philosophical Cosmology and Philosophy, ed. John Leslie (New York: Macmillan, 1990): 256–266
ú Stanley L. Jaki, God and the Cosmologists (Washington, DC: Regnery Gateway, 1989), 177–184; R. Monastersky, 373
ú The editors, 15
ú Jacques Laskar, 109–113
ú Richard A. Kerr, “The Solar System’s New Diversity,” Science 265 (1994): 1360–1362
ú Richard A. Kerr, “When Comparative Planetology Hit Its Target,” Science 265 (1994): 1361
ú W. R. Kuhn, J. C. G. Walker, and H. G. Marshall, 11, 129–131, 136
ú Gregory S. Jenkins, Hal G. Marshall, and W. R. Kuhn, 8785–8791
ú K. J. Zahnle and J. C. G. Walker, 95–105; M. J. Newman and R. T. Roos, “Implications of the Solar Evolution for the Earth’s Early Atmosphere,” Science 198 (1977): 1035–1037
ú J. C. G. Walker and K. J. Zahnle, “Lunar Nodal Tides and Distance to the Moon During the Precambrian,” Nature 320 (1986): 600–602
ú J. F. Kasting and J. B. Pollack, “Effects of High CO2 Levels on Surface Temperatures and Atmospheric Oxidation State of the Early Earth,” Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry 1 (1984): 403–428
ú H. G. Marshall, J. C. G. Walker, and W. R. Kuhn, “Long Term Climate Change and the Geochemical Cycle of Carbon,” Journal of Geophysical Research 93 (1988): 791–801
ú Pieter G. van Dokkum et al., L95–L98
ú Anatoly Klypin, Andrey V. Kravtsov, and Octavio Valenzuela, 82–92
ú Roland Buser, 69–74
ú Robert Irion, 6264; D. M. Murphy et al., 62–65
ú Neil F. Comins., 2–8; 53–65
ú W. R. Kuhn, J. C. G. Walker, and H. G. Marshall, 11, 129–131, 136
ú H. E. Newsom and S. R. Taylor, 29–34
ú Hugh Ross, “Lunar Origin Update,” 1–3
ú Jack J. Lissauer, 327–328
ú Sigeru Ida, Robin M. Canup, and Glen R. Stewart, 353–357
ú Louis A. Codispoti, 237; Kenneth H. Coale, 495–499
ú P. Jonathan Patchett, 758; William R. Ward, 444–448
ú Carl D. Murray, 586–587
ú Jacques Laskar and P. Robutel, 608–612
ú Jacques Laskar, F. Joutel, and P. Robutel, 615–617
ú S. H. Rhie et al., 378–391
ú Ron Cowen, “Less Massive than Saturn?” 220–222
ú Hugh Ross, “Planet Quest—A Recent Success,” 1–2
ú G. Gonzalez, “Spectroscopic Analyses of the Parent Stars of Extrasolar Planetary Systems,” 221–238
ú Guillermo Gonzalez, “New Planets Hurt Chances for ETI,” 2–4
ú The editors, “The Vacant Interstellar Spaces,” Discover, April 1996, 18, 21
ú Theodore P. Snow and Adolf N. Witt, “The Interstellar Carbon Budget and the Role of Carbon in Dust and Large Molecules,” Science 270 (1995): 1455–1457
ú Richard A. Kerr, “Revised Galileo Data Leave Jupiter Mysteriously Dry,” Science 272 (1996): 814–815
ú Adam Burrows and Jonathan Lumine, “Astronomical Questions of Origin and Survival,” Nature 378 (1995): 333
ú George Wetherill, “How Special Is Jupiter?” Nature 373 (1995): 470
ú B. Zuckerman, T. Forveille, and J. H. Kastner, “Inhibition of Giant-Planet Formation by Rapid Gas Depletion Around Young Stars,” Nature 373 (1995): 494–496
ú Hugh Ross, “Our Solar System, the Heavyweight Champion,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 2 (1996), 6
ú Guillermo Gonzalez, “Solar System Bounces in the Right Range for Life,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 1 (1997), 4–5
ú C. R. Brackenridge, “Terrestrial Paleoenvironmental Effects of a Late Quaternary-Age Supernova,” Icarus 46 (1981), 81–9
ú M. A. Ruderman, “Possible Consequences of Nearby Supernova Explosions for Atmospheric Ozone and Terrestrial Life,” Science 184 (1974): 1079–1081
ú G. C. Reid et al., “Effects of Intense Stratospheric Ionization Events,” Nature 275 (1978): 489–492
ú B. Edvardsson et al., “The Chemical Evolution of the Galactic Disk. I. Analysis and Results,” Astronomy & Astrophysics 275 (1993): 101–152
ú J. J. Maltese et al., “Periodic Modulation of the Oort Cloud Comet Flux by the Adiabatically Changed Galactic Tide,” Icarus 116 (1995): 255–268
ú Paul R. Renne et al., “Synchrony and Causal Relations Between Permian-Triassic Boundary Crisis and Siberian Flood Volcanism,” Science 269 (1995): 1413–1416
ú Hugh Ross, “Sparks in the Deep Freeze,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 1 (1997), 5–6
ú T. R. Gabella and T. Oka, “Detection of H3+ in Interstellar Space,” Nature 384 (1996): 334–335
ú Hugh Ross, “Let There Be Air,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 3 (1996), 2–3
ú Davud J. Des Marais, Harold Strauss, Roger E. Summons, and J. M. Hayes, “Carbon Isotope Evidence for the Stepwise Oxidation of the Proterozoic Environment Nature 359 (1992): 605–609
ú Donald E. Canfield and Andreas Teske, “Late Proterozoic Rise in Atmospheric Oxygen Concentration Inferred from Phylogenetic and Sulphur-Isotope Studies,” Nature 382 (1996): 127–132
ú Alan Cromer, UnCommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 175–176
ú Hugh Ross, “Drifting Giants Highlights Jupiter’s Uniqueness,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 4 (1996), 4
ú Hugh Ross, “New Planets Raise Unwarranted Speculation About Life,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 1 (1996), 1–3
ú Hugh Ross, “Jupiter’s Stability,” Facts & Faith, vol. 8, no. 3 (1994), 1–2
ú Christopher Chyba, “Life Beyond Mars,” Nature 382 (1996): 577
ú E. Skindrad, “Where Is Everybody?” Science News 150 (1996): 153
ú Stephen H. Schneider, Laboratory Earth: The Planetary Gamble We Can’t Afford to Lose (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 25, 29–30
ú Guillermo Gonzalez, “Mini-Comets Write New Chapter in Earth-Science,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 3 (197), 6–7; Miguel A. Go i, Kathleen C. Ruttenberg, and Timothy I. Eglinton, “Sources and Contribution of Terrigenous Organic Carbon to Surface Sediments in the Gulf of Mexico,” Nature 389 (1997): 275–278
ú Paul G. Falkowski, “Evolution of the Nitrogen Cycle and Its Influence on the Biological Sequestration of CO2 in the Ocean,” Nature 387 (1997): 272–274
ú John S. Lewis, Physics and Chemistry of the Solar System (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1995), 485–492
ú Hugh Ross, “Earth Design Update: Ozone Times Three,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 4 (1997), 4–5
ú W. L. Chameides, P. S. Kasibhatla, J. Yienger, and H. Levy II, “Growth of Continental-Scale Metro-Agro-Plexes, Regional Ozone Pollution, and World Food Production,” Science 264 (1994): 74–77
ú Paul Crutzen and Mark Lawrence, “Ozone Clouds Over the Atlantic,” Nature 388 (1997): 625; Paul Crutzen, “Mesospheric Mysteries,” Science 277 (1997): 1951–1952
ú M. E.Cowen, “Less Massive than Saturn?” 220–222
ú Hugh Ross, “Planet Quest—A Recent Success,” 1–2
ú G. Gonzalez, “Spectroscopic Analyses of the Parent Stars of Extrasolar Planetary Systems,” 221–238
ú Guillermo Gonzalez, “New Planets Hurt Chances for ETI,” 2–4
ú The editors, “The Vacant Interstellar Spaces,” Discover, April 1996, 18, 21
ú Theodore P. Snow and Adolf N. Witt, “The Interstellar Carbon Budget and the Role of Carbon in Dust and Large Molecules,” Science 270 (1995): 1455–1457
ú Richard A. Kerr, “Revised Galileo Data Leave Jupiter Mysteriously Dry,” Science 272 (1996): 814–815
ú Adam Burrows and Jonathan Lumine, “Astronomical Questions of Origin and Survival,” Nature 378 (1995): 333
ú George Wetherill, “How Special Is Jupiter?” Nature 373 (1995): 470
ú B. Zuckerman, T. Forveille, and J. H. Kastner, “Inhibition of Giant-Planet Formation by Rapid Gas Depletion Around Young Stars,” Nature 373 (1995): 494–496
ú Hugh Ross, “Our Solar System, the Heavyweight Champion,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 2 (1996), 6
ú Guillermo Gonzalez, “Solar System Bounces in the Right Range for Life,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 1 (1997), 4–5
ú C. R. Brackenridge, “Terrestrial Paleoenvironmental Effects of a Late Quaternary-Age Supernova,” Icarus 46 (1981), 81–93
ú M. A. Ruderman, “Possible Consequences of Nearby Supernova Explosions for Atmospheric Ozone and Terrestrial Life,” Science 184 (1974): 1079–1081
ú G. C. Reid et al., “Effects of Intense Stratospheric Ionization Events,” Nature 275 (1978): 489–492
ú B. Edvardsson et al., “The Chemical Evolution of the Galactic Disk. I. Analysis and Results,” Astronomy & Astrophysics 275 (1993): 101–152
ú J. J. Maltese et al., “Periodic Modulation of the Oort Cloud Comet Flux by the Adiabatically Changed Galactic Tide,” Icarus 116 (1995): 255–268
ú Paul R. Renne et al., “Synchrony and Causal Relations Between Permian-Triassic Boundary Crisis and Siberian Flood Volcanism,” Science 269 (1995): 1413–1416
ú Hugh Ross, “Sparks in the Deep Freeze,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 1 (1997), 5–6
ú T. R. Gabella and T. Oka, “Detection of H3+ in Interstellar Space,” Nature 384 (1996): 334–335
ú Hugh Ross, “Let There Be Air,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 3 (1996), 2–3
ú Davud J. Des Marais, Harold Strauss, Roger E. Summons, and J. M. Hayes, “Carbon Isotope Evidence for the Stepwise Oxidation of the Proterozoic Environment Nature 359 (1992): 605–609
ú Donald E. Canfield and Andreas Teske, “Late Proterozoic Rise in Atmospheric Oxygen Concentration Inferred from Phylogenetic and Sulphur-Isotope Studies,” Nature 382 (1996): 127–132
ú Alan Cromer, UnCommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), 175–176
ú Hugh Ross, “Drifting Giants Highlights Jupiter’s Uniqueness,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 4 (1996), 4
ú Hugh Ross, “New Planets Raise Unwarranted Speculation About Life,” Facts & Faith, vol. 10, no. 1 (1996), 1–3
ú Hugh Ross, “Jupiter’s Stability,” Facts & Faith, vol. 8, no. 3 (1994), 1–2
ú Christopher Chyba, “Life Beyond Mars,” Nature 382 (1996): 577
ú E. Skindrad, “Where Is Everybody?” Science News 150 (1996): 153
ú Stephen H. Schneider, Laboratory Earth: The Planetary Gamble We Can’t Afford to Lose (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 25, 29–30
ú Guillermo Gonzalez, “Mini-Comets Write New Chapter in Earth-Science,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 3 (197), 6–
ú Miguel A. Go i, Kathleen C. Ruttenberg, and Timothy I. Eglinton, “Sources and Contribution of Terrigenous Organic Carbon to Surface Sediments in the Gulf of Mexico,” Nature 389 (1997): 275–278
ú Paul G. Falkowski, “Evolution of the Nitrogen Cycle and Its Influence on the Biological Sequestration of CO2 in the Ocean,” Nature 387 (1997): 272–274
ú John S. Lewis, Physics and Chemistry of the Solar System (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1995), 485–492
ú Hugh Ross, “Earth Design Update: Ozone Times Three,” Facts & Faith, vol. 11, no. 4 (1997), 4–5
ú W. L. Chameides, P. S. Kasibhatla, J. Yienger, and H. Levy II, “Growth of Continental-Scale Metro-Agro-Plexes, Regional Ozone Pollution, and World Food Production,” Science 264 (1994): 74–77
ú Paul Crutzen and Mark Lawrence, “Ozone Clouds Over the Atlantic,” Nature 388 (1997): 625; Paul Crutzen, “Mesospheric Mysteries,” Science 277 (1997): 1951–1952
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